COMPUTERS AND MORE

Computer display
A computer display monitor, usually called simply a monitor, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays viewable images generated by a computer without producing a permanent record. The word "monitor" is used in other contexts; in particular in television broadcasting, where a television picture is displayed to a high standard. A computer display device is usually either a cathode ray tube or some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry to generate a picture from electronic signals sent by the computer, and an enclosure or case. Within the computer, either as an integral part or a plugged-in interface, there is circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a monitor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Screen Size
1.1 Diagonal size
1.2 Widescreen area
2 Imaging technologies
2.1 Cathode ray tube
3 Performance measurements
3.1 Comparison
3.1.1 CRT
3.1.2 Passive LCD
3.1.3 TFT LCD
3.1.4 Plasma
3.1.5 Penetron
4 Problems
4.1 Dead pixels
4.2 Stuck pixels
4.3 Phosphor burn-in
4.4 Plasma burn-in
4.5 Black level misadjustment
4.6 Glare
4.7 Color misregistration
4.8 Incomplete spectrum
5 Display interfaces
5.1 Computer Terminals
5.2 Composite signal
5.3 Digital monitors
5.3.1 TTL monitors
5.3.2 Single colour screens
6 Modern technology
6.1 Analog RGB monitors
6.2 Digital and analog combination
7 Configuration and usage
7.1 Multi-head
7.2 Virtual displays
8 Additional features
8.1 Power saving
8.2 Directional screen
8.3 Touch screen
9 Major manufacturers
10 See also
11 Interesting links
12 External links
Screen Size
Diagonal size
The inch size quoted is the diagonal size of the picture tube or LCD panel. With CRTs the picture is normally smaller by 1.5" - 2", hence a 17" LCD gives about the same size picture as a 19" CRT.
This method of size measurement dates from the early days of CRT television when round picture tubes were in common use, which only had one dimension that described display size. When rectangular tubes were used, the diagonal measurement of these was equivalent to the round tube's diameter, hence this was used (and of course it was the largest of the available numbers)
A better way to compare CRT and LCD displays is by viewable image size.
Widescreen area
A widescreen display always has less screen area for a given quoted inch size than a standard 4:3 display, due to basic geometry.
[edit] Imaging technologies


19" inch (48.3 cm tube, 45.9 cm viewable) CRT computer monitor
As with television, several different hardware technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output:
Liquid crystal display (LCD). TFT LCDs are the most popular display device for new computers in the Western world.
Passive LCD gives poor contrast and slow response, and other image defects. These were used in some laptops until the mid 1990s.
·
TFT Thin Film Transistor LCDs give much better picture quality in several respects. All modern LCD monitors are TFT.
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Standard raster scan computer monitors
Vector displays, as used on the Vectrex, many scientific and radar applications, and several early arcade machines (notably Asteroids - always implemented using CRT displays due to requirement for a deflection system, though can be emulated on any raster-based display.
Television receivers were used by most early personal and home computers, connecting composite video to the television set using a modulator. Image quality was reduced by the additional steps of composite video ? modulator ? TV tuner ? composite video.
Plasma display
Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)
Video projector - implemented using LCD, CRT, or other technologies. Recent consumer-level video projectors are almost exclusively LCD based.
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display
Penetron military aircraft displays
Cathode ray tube


CRT Computer display pixel array(right)
The CRT or cathode ray tube, is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a charged screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of dots that glow when struck by the electron stream. Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel.
The image on the monitor screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of such tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the sharper the image on screen can be. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm or less.
There are two electromagnets around the collar of the tube which deflect the electron beam. The beam scans across the top of the monitor from left to right, is then blanked and moved back to the left-hand side slightly below the previous trace (on the next scan line), scans across the second line and so on until the bottom right of the screen is reached. The beam is again blanked, and moved back to the top left to start again. This process draws a complete picture, typically 50 to 100 times a second. The number of times in one second that the electron gun redraws the entire image is called the refresh rate and is measured in hertz (cycles per second). It is common, particularly in lower-priced equipment, for all the odd-numbered lines of an image to be traced, and then all the even-numbered lines; the circuitry of such an interlaced display need be capable of only half the speed of a non-interlaced display. An interlaced display, particularly at a relatively low refresh rate, can appear to some observers to flicker, and may cause eyestrain and nausea.
Performance measurements
The performance parameters of a monitor are:
Luminance, measured in candelas per square metre (cd/m²).
viewable image size, measured diagonally. For CRT the viewable size is one inch (25 mm) smaller then the tube itself.
Dot pitch. Describes the distance between pixels of the same color in millimetres. In general, the lower the dot pitch (e.g. 0.24 mm, which is also 240 micrometres), the sharper the picture will appear.
Response time. The amount of time a pixel in an LCD monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
Contrast ratio. The contrast ratio is defined as the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.
Refresh rate. The number of times in a second that a display is illuminated.
Power consumption, measured in watts (W).
Aspect ratio, which is the horizontal size compared to the vertical size, e.g. 4:3 is the standard aspect ratio, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of 768 pixels. A widescreen display can have an aspect ratio of 16:9, which means a display that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels.
Display resolution. The number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
Comparison
CRT
High contrast ratio
High speed response
Full range light output level control
Large size
Large weight
Most produce geometric distortion
Greater power consumption than LCD.
Prone to moire effect at highest resolution
Can display natively in almost any resolution
Intolerant of damp conditions
Small risk of explosion if the picture tube glass is broken
Passive LCD
Very poor contrast ratio (eg 20:1)
High visible noise if used in more than 8 colour mode (3 bit colour depth).
Very slow response (moving images barely viewable)
Some suffer horizontal & vertical ghosting
Very small size
Very low weight
Very low power consumption
Lower cost than TFT LCDs.
Zero geometric distortion
TFT LCD
More or less all modern LCD monitors are the TFT type.
Medium contrast ratio
Response rates vary from one model to another, slower screens will show smearing on moving images
Very small size
Very low weight
Very low power consumption
Higher cost than Passive LCD or CRT.
Zero geometric distortion
LCDs of both types only have one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires conversion & interpolation, which often degrades image quality.
Plasma
High operating temperature can be painful to touch
Prone to burn-in
No geometric distortion
Highest cost option
High power consumption
Penetron
Main article: Penetron
Only found in military aircraft
2 colour display
See through
Orders of magnitude more expensive than the other display technologies listed here
Problems
Dead pixels
A fraction of all LCD monitors are produced with "dead pixels". Due to the desire for affordable monitors, most manufacturers sell monitors with dead pixels. Almost all manufacturers have clauses in their warranties which claim monitors with fewer than some number of dead pixels is not broken and will not be replaced. The dead pixels are usually stuck with the green, red, and/or blue subpixels either individually always stuck on or off.
Like image persistence, this can sometimes be partially or fully reversed by using the same method listed below, however the chance of success is far lower than with a "stuck" pixel. It can also sometimes be repaired by physically flicking the pixel, however it is always a possibility for someone to use too much force and rupture the weak screen internals doing this.
Stuck pixels
LCD monitors, while lacking phosphor screens and thus immune to phosphor burn-in, have a similar condition known as image persistence, where the pixels of the LCD monitor can "remember" a particular color and become "stuck" and unable to change. Unlike phosphor burn-in, however, image persistence can sometimes be reversed partially or completely.[citation needed] This is accomplished by rapidly displaying varying colors to "wake up" the stuck pixels.
Phosphor burn-in
Phosphor burn-in is localised aging of the phosphor layer of a CRT screen where it has displayed a static bright image for many years. This results in a faint permanent image on the screen, even when powered off. In severe cases it can even be possible to read some of the text, though this only occurs where the displayed text remained the same for years.
This was once a relatively common phenomenon in single purpose business computers. It can still be an issue with CRT displays when used to display the same image for years at a time, but modern computers aren't normally used this way any more, so the problem is not a significant issue today, with CRTs.
The size of the issue seems to have become exaggerated in popular opinion. The only systems that suffered the defect were ones displaying the same image for years, and with these the presence of burn-in was not a noticeable effect when in use, since it coincided with the displayed image perfectly. Also such systems were inevitably functional rather than eye candy, so even visible slight damage that occurred when reusing a heavily used business monitor for another business app was a trivial cosmetic issue. It only became a significant issue in 3 situations:
when some heavily used monitors were reused at home,
or re-used for display purposes
in some high security applications (but only those where the high security data displayed did not change for years at a time).
Screen savers were developed as a means to avoid burn-in, but are redundant for CRTs today, despite their popularity. The problem does not occur with multitasking systems, and powering down the display after a period of non-use is as effective and has additional benefits, such as increasing monitor life and reducing power use.
Phosphor Burn-in can be gradually removed on damaged CRT displays by displaying an all white screen with brightness & contrast turned up full. This is a slow procedure, and is usually but not always effective.
Plasma burn-in
Burn-in has re-emerged as an issue with plasma displays, which are much more vulnerable to this than CRTs. Screen savers with moving images may be used with these to minimise localised burn. Periodic change of the colour scheme in use also helps reduce the issue.
Black level misadjustment
User misadjustment of black level is common. This alters the colour displayed with most darker colours.
A testcard image may be used to set the image black level correctly. On CRT monitors
Black level is set with the 'brightness' control
White level is set with the 'contrast' control
sometimes black level can need readjustment after setting white level.
The naming of CRT controls is historic, and in some cases counterintuitive.
Glare
Glare is a problem caused by the relationship between lighting and screen, or by using monitors in bright sunlight. LCDs and flat screen CRTs are less prone to this than conventional curved CRTs, and trinitron CRTs, which are curved on one axis only, are less prone to it than other CRTs curved on both axes.
If the problem persists despite moving the monitor or adjusting lighting, a filter using a mesh of very fine black wires may be placed on the screen to reduce glare and improve contrast. These filters were popular in the late 1980s. They do also reduce light output, which can occasionally be an issue.
Color misregistration
With exceptions of DLP, most display technologies, especially LCD, have an inherent misregistration of the color channels, that is, the centres of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly. Subpixel rendering depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the Apple II from 1976 [1], and more recently Microsoft (ClearType, 1998) and XFree86 (X Rendering Extension).
Incomplete spectrum
RGB displays produce most of the visible colour spectrum, but not all. This can be a problem where good colour matching to non-RGB images is needed. This issue is common to all monitor technologies with 3 colour channels.
Display interfaces
Computer Terminals
Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) such as the DEC VT05 without graphics capabilities gained the label glass teletypes, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors.
Some historic computers had no modern display, using a printer instead.
Composite signal
Early home computers such as the Apple II and the Commodore 64 used a composite signal output to drive a CRT monitor or TV. This resulted in degraded resolution due to compromises in the broadcast TV standards used. This method is still used with video game consoles.
Digital monitors
Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green, and blue inputs are compatible with TTL logic chips. Later digital monitors support LVDS, or TMDS protocols.
TTL monitors


IBM PC with green monochrome display


An amber monochrome computer monitor, manufactured in 2007, which uses a 15-pin SVGA connector just like a standard color monitor.
Monitors used with the MDA, Hercules, CGA, and EGA graphics adapters used in early IBM PC's (Personal Computer) and clones were controlled via TTL logic. Such monitors can usually be identified by a male DB-9 connector used on the video cable. The disadvantage of TTL monitors was the limited number of colors available due to the low number of digital bits used for video signaling.
Modern monochrome monitors, such as the one pictured to the right which was manufactured in 2007, use the same 15-pin SVGA connector that standard color monitors use. They're capable of displaying 32-bit grayscale at 1024x768 resolution, making them able to interface and be used with modern computers.
TTL Monochrome monitors only made use of five out of the nine pins. One pin was used as a ground, and two pins were used for horizontal/vertical synchronization. The electron gun was controlled by two separate digital signals, a video bit, and an intensity bit to control the brightness of the drawn pixels. Only four unique shades were possible; black, dim, medium or bright.
CGA monitors used four digital signals to control the three electron guns used in color CRTs, in a signalling method known as RGBI, or Red Green and Blue, plus Intensity. Each of the three RGB colors can be switched on or off independently. The intensity bit increases the brightness of all guns that are switched on, or if no colors are switched on the intensity bit will switch on all guns at a very low brightness to produce a dark grey. A CGA monitor is only capable of rendering 16 unique colors. The CGA monitor was not exclusively used by PC based hardware. The Commodore 128 could also utilize CGA monitors. Many CGA monitors were capable of displaying composite video via a separate jack.
EGA monitors used six digital signals to control the three electron guns in a signalling method known as RrGgBb. Unlike CGA, each gun is allocated its own intensity bit. This allowed each of the three primary colors to have four different states (off, soft, medium, and bright) resulting in 64 possible colors.
Although not supported in the original IBM specification, many vendors of clone graphics adapters have implemented backwards monitor compatibility and auto detection. For example, EGA cards produced by Paradise could operate as a MDA, or CGA adapter if a monochrome or CGA monitor was used in place of an EGA monitor. Many CGA cards were also capable of operating as MDA or Hercules card if a monochrome monitor was used.
Single colour screens
Display colours other than white were very popular on monochrome monitors in the 1980s. These colours were more comfortable on the eye. This was particularly an issue at the time due to the lower refresh rates in use at the time causing flicker, plus the use of less comfortable colour schemes than used with most of today's software.
Green screens were the most popular colour, with orange displays also available. 'Paper white' was also in use, which was a warm white.
Modern technology
Analog RGB monitors
Most modern computer displays can show thousands or millions of different colors in the RGB color space by varying red, green, and blue signals in continuously variable intensities.
Digital and analog combination
Many monitors have analog signal relay, but some more recent models (mostly LCD screens) support digital input signals. It is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital. For several years, televisions, composite monitors, and computer displays have been significantly different. However, as TVs have become more versatile, the distinction has blurred.
Configuration and usage
Multi-head
Main article: Multi-monitor
Some users use more than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes. One of the most common spreads the entire desktop over all of the monitors, which thus act as one big desktop. The X Window System refers to this as Xinerama.


Two Apple flat-screen monitors used as dual display
Terminology:
Dualhead - Using two monitors
Triplehead - using three monitors
Display assembly - multi-head configurations actively managed as a single unit
Virtual displays
The X Window System provides configuration mechanisms for using a single hardware monitor for rendering multiple virtual displays, as controlled (for example) with the Unix DISPLAY global variable or with the -display command option.
Additional features
Power saving
More or less all modern monitors contain a power saving mode they will switch to if they receive no video input signal. Modern operating systems can thus power down a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. Typical lifetime cost savings outweight the cost of implementation. This also extends the service life of the monitor.
Some monitors will also switch themselves completely off after a time period on standby.
Some laptops have a dimmed screen mode they can use to extend battery life.] Directional screen
Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security conscious applications.] Touch screen
These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. This does however mean the screen needs frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.
Major manufacturers
Acer
Apple Inc.
BenQ
Dell, Inc.
Hewlett-Packard
Eizo
HannStar Display Corporation
Iiyama Corporation
LaCie
LG Electronics
NEC Display Solutions
Philips
Samsung
Sharp
Sony
ViewSonic
Westinghouse

Computer display
A computer display monitor, usually called simply a monitor, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays viewable images generated by a computer without producing a permanent record. The word "monitor" is used in other contexts; in particular in television broadcasting, where a television picture is displayed to a high standard. A computer display device is usually either a cathode ray tube or some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry to generate a picture from electronic signals sent by the computer, and an enclosure or case. Within the computer, either as an integral part or a plugged-in interface, there is circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a monitor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Screen Size
1.1 Diagonal size
1.2 Widescreen area
2 Imaging technologies
2.1 Cathode ray tube
3 Performance measurements
3.1 Comparison
3.1.1 CRT
3.1.2 Passive LCD
3.1.3 TFT LCD
3.1.4 Plasma
3.1.5 Penetron
4 Problems
4.1 Dead pixels
4.2 Stuck pixels
4.3 Phosphor burn-in
4.4 Plasma burn-in
4.5 Black level misadjustment
4.6 Glare
4.7 Color misregistration
4.8 Incomplete spectrum
5 Display interfaces
5.1 Computer Terminals
5.2 Composite signal
5.3 Digital monitors
5.3.1 TTL monitors
5.3.2 Single colour screens
6 Modern technology
6.1 Analog RGB monitors
6.2 Digital and analog combination
7 Configuration and usage
7.1 Multi-head
7.2 Virtual displays
8 Additional features
8.1 Power saving
8.2 Directional screen
8.3 Touch screen
9 Major manufacturers
10 See also
11 Interesting links
12 External links
Screen Size
Diagonal size
The inch size quoted is the diagonal size of the picture tube or LCD panel. With CRTs the picture is normally smaller by 1.5" - 2", hence a 17" LCD gives about the same size picture as a 19" CRT.
This method of size measurement dates from the early days of CRT television when round picture tubes were in common use, which only had one dimension that described display size. When rectangular tubes were used, the diagonal measurement of these was equivalent to the round tube's diameter, hence this was used (and of course it was the largest of the available numbers)
A better way to compare CRT and LCD displays is by viewable image size.
Widescreen area
A widescreen display always has less screen area for a given quoted inch size than a standard 4:3 display, due to basic geometry.
[edit] Imaging technologies


19" inch (48.3 cm tube, 45.9 cm viewable) CRT computer monitor
As with television, several different hardware technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output:
Liquid crystal display (LCD). TFT LCDs are the most popular display device for new computers in the Western world.
Passive LCD gives poor contrast and slow response, and other image defects. These were used in some laptops until the mid 1990s.
·
TFT Thin Film Transistor LCDs give much better picture quality in several respects. All modern LCD monitors are TFT.
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Standard raster scan computer monitors
Vector displays, as used on the Vectrex, many scientific and radar applications, and several early arcade machines (notably Asteroids - always implemented using CRT displays due to requirement for a deflection system, though can be emulated on any raster-based display.
Television receivers were used by most early personal and home computers, connecting composite video to the television set using a modulator. Image quality was reduced by the additional steps of composite video ? modulator ? TV tuner ? composite video.
Plasma display
Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)
Video projector - implemented using LCD, CRT, or other technologies. Recent consumer-level video projectors are almost exclusively LCD based.
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display
Penetron military aircraft displays
Cathode ray tube


CRT Computer display pixel array(right)
The CRT or cathode ray tube, is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a charged screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of dots that glow when struck by the electron stream. Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel.
The image on the monitor screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of such tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the sharper the image on screen can be. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm or less.
There are two electromagnets around the collar of the tube which deflect the electron beam. The beam scans across the top of the monitor from left to right, is then blanked and moved back to the left-hand side slightly below the previous trace (on the next scan line), scans across the second line and so on until the bottom right of the screen is reached. The beam is again blanked, and moved back to the top left to start again. This process draws a complete picture, typically 50 to 100 times a second. The number of times in one second that the electron gun redraws the entire image is called the refresh rate and is measured in hertz (cycles per second). It is common, particularly in lower-priced equipment, for all the odd-numbered lines of an image to be traced, and then all the even-numbered lines; the circuitry of such an interlaced display need be capable of only half the speed of a non-interlaced display. An interlaced display, particularly at a relatively low refresh rate, can appear to some observers to flicker, and may cause eyestrain and nausea.
Performance measurements
The performance parameters of a monitor are:
Luminance, measured in candelas per square metre (cd/m²).
viewable image size, measured diagonally. For CRT the viewable size is one inch (25 mm) smaller then the tube itself.
Dot pitch. Describes the distance between pixels of the same color in millimetres. In general, the lower the dot pitch (e.g. 0.24 mm, which is also 240 micrometres), the sharper the picture will appear.
Response time. The amount of time a pixel in an LCD monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
Contrast ratio. The contrast ratio is defined as the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.
Refresh rate. The number of times in a second that a display is illuminated.
Power consumption, measured in watts (W).
Aspect ratio, which is the horizontal size compared to the vertical size, e.g. 4:3 is the standard aspect ratio, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of 768 pixels. A widescreen display can have an aspect ratio of 16:9, which means a display that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels.
Display resolution. The number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
Comparison
CRT
High contrast ratio
High speed response
Full range light output level control
Large size
Large weight
Most produce geometric distortion
Greater power consumption than LCD.
Prone to moire effect at highest resolution
Can display natively in almost any resolution
Intolerant of damp conditions
Small risk of explosion if the picture tube glass is broken
Passive LCD
Very poor contrast ratio (eg 20:1)
High visible noise if used in more than 8 colour mode (3 bit colour depth).
Very slow response (moving images barely viewable)
Some suffer horizontal & vertical ghosting
Very small size
Very low weight
Very low power consumption
Lower cost than TFT LCDs.
Zero geometric distortion
TFT LCD
More or less all modern LCD monitors are the TFT type.
Medium contrast ratio
Response rates vary from one model to another, slower screens will show smearing on moving images
Very small size
Very low weight
Very low power consumption
Higher cost than Passive LCD or CRT.
Zero geometric distortion
LCDs of both types only have one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires conversion & interpolation, which often degrades image quality.
Plasma
High operating temperature can be painful to touch
Prone to burn-in
No geometric distortion
Highest cost option
High power consumption
Penetron
Main article: Penetron
Only found in military aircraft
2 colour display
See through
Orders of magnitude more expensive than the other display technologies listed here
Problems
Dead pixels
A fraction of all LCD monitors are produced with "dead pixels". Due to the desire for affordable monitors, most manufacturers sell monitors with dead pixels. Almost all manufacturers have clauses in their warranties which claim monitors with fewer than some number of dead pixels is not broken and will not be replaced. The dead pixels are usually stuck with the green, red, and/or blue subpixels either individually always stuck on or off.
Like image persistence, this can sometimes be partially or fully reversed by using the same method listed below, however the chance of success is far lower than with a "stuck" pixel. It can also sometimes be repaired by physically flicking the pixel, however it is always a possibility for someone to use too much force and rupture the weak screen internals doing this.
Stuck pixels
LCD monitors, while lacking phosphor screens and thus immune to phosphor burn-in, have a similar condition known as image persistence, where the pixels of the LCD monitor can "remember" a particular color and become "stuck" and unable to change. Unlike phosphor burn-in, however, image persistence can sometimes be reversed partially or completely.[citation needed] This is accomplished by rapidly displaying varying colors to "wake up" the stuck pixels.
Phosphor burn-in
Phosphor burn-in is localised aging of the phosphor layer of a CRT screen where it has displayed a static bright image for many years. This results in a faint permanent image on the screen, even when powered off. In severe cases it can even be possible to read some of the text, though this only occurs where the displayed text remained the same for years.
This was once a relatively common phenomenon in single purpose business computers. It can still be an issue with CRT displays when used to display the same image for years at a time, but modern computers aren't normally used this way any more, so the problem is not a significant issue today, with CRTs.
The size of the issue seems to have become exaggerated in popular opinion. The only systems that suffered the defect were ones displaying the same image for years, and with these the presence of burn-in was not a noticeable effect when in use, since it coincided with the displayed image perfectly. Also such systems were inevitably functional rather than eye candy, so even visible slight damage that occurred when reusing a heavily used business monitor for another business app was a trivial cosmetic issue. It only became a significant issue in 3 situations:
when some heavily used monitors were reused at home,
or re-used for display purposes
in some high security applications (but only those where the high security data displayed did not change for years at a time).
Screen savers were developed as a means to avoid burn-in, but are redundant for CRTs today, despite their popularity. The problem does not occur with multitasking systems, and powering down the display after a period of non-use is as effective and has additional benefits, such as increasing monitor life and reducing power use.
Phosphor Burn-in can be gradually removed on damaged CRT displays by displaying an all white screen with brightness & contrast turned up full. This is a slow procedure, and is usually but not always effective.
Plasma burn-in
Burn-in has re-emerged as an issue with plasma displays, which are much more vulnerable to this than CRTs. Screen savers with moving images may be used with these to minimise localised burn. Periodic change of the colour scheme in use also helps reduce the issue.
Black level misadjustment
User misadjustment of black level is common. This alters the colour displayed with most darker colours.
A testcard image may be used to set the image black level correctly. On CRT monitors
Black level is set with the 'brightness' control
White level is set with the 'contrast' control
sometimes black level can need readjustment after setting white level.
The naming of CRT controls is historic, and in some cases counterintuitive.
Glare
Glare is a problem caused by the relationship between lighting and screen, or by using monitors in bright sunlight. LCDs and flat screen CRTs are less prone to this than conventional curved CRTs, and trinitron CRTs, which are curved on one axis only, are less prone to it than other CRTs curved on both axes.
If the problem persists despite moving the monitor or adjusting lighting, a filter using a mesh of very fine black wires may be placed on the screen to reduce glare and improve contrast. These filters were popular in the late 1980s. They do also reduce light output, which can occasionally be an issue.
Color misregistration
With exceptions of DLP, most display technologies, especially LCD, have an inherent misregistration of the color channels, that is, the centres of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly. Subpixel rendering depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the Apple II from 1976 [1], and more recently Microsoft (ClearType, 1998) and XFree86 (X Rendering Extension).
Incomplete spectrum
RGB displays produce most of the visible colour spectrum, but not all. This can be a problem where good colour matching to non-RGB images is needed. This issue is common to all monitor technologies with 3 colour channels.
Display interfaces
Computer Terminals
Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) such as the DEC VT05 without graphics capabilities gained the label glass teletypes, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors.
Some historic computers had no modern display, using a printer instead.
Composite signal
Early home computers such as the Apple II and the Commodore 64 used a composite signal output to drive a CRT monitor or TV. This resulted in degraded resolution due to compromises in the broadcast TV standards used. This method is still used with video game consoles.
Digital monitors
Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green, and blue inputs are compatible with TTL logic chips. Later digital monitors support LVDS, or TMDS protocols.
TTL monitors


IBM PC with green monochrome display


An amber monochrome computer monitor, manufactured in 2007, which uses a 15-pin SVGA connector just like a standard color monitor.
Monitors used with the MDA, Hercules, CGA, and EGA graphics adapters used in early IBM PC's (Personal Computer) and clones were controlled via TTL logic. Such monitors can usually be identified by a male DB-9 connector used on the video cable. The disadvantage of TTL monitors was the limited number of colors available due to the low number of digital bits used for video signaling.
Modern monochrome monitors, such as the one pictured to the right which was manufactured in 2007, use the same 15-pin SVGA connector that standard color monitors use. They're capable of displaying 32-bit grayscale at 1024x768 resolution, making them able to interface and be used with modern computers.
TTL Monochrome monitors only made use of five out of the nine pins. One pin was used as a ground, and two pins were used for horizontal/vertical synchronization. The electron gun was controlled by two separate digital signals, a video bit, and an intensity bit to control the brightness of the drawn pixels. Only four unique shades were possible; black, dim, medium or bright.
CGA monitors used four digital signals to control the three electron guns used in color CRTs, in a signalling method known as RGBI, or Red Green and Blue, plus Intensity. Each of the three RGB colors can be switched on or off independently. The intensity bit increases the brightness of all guns that are switched on, or if no colors are switched on the intensity bit will switch on all guns at a very low brightness to produce a dark grey. A CGA monitor is only capable of rendering 16 unique colors. The CGA monitor was not exclusively used by PC based hardware. The Commodore 128 could also utilize CGA monitors. Many CGA monitors were capable of displaying composite video via a separate jack.
EGA monitors used six digital signals to control the three electron guns in a signalling method known as RrGgBb. Unlike CGA, each gun is allocated its own intensity bit. This allowed each of the three primary colors to have four different states (off, soft, medium, and bright) resulting in 64 possible colors.
Although not supported in the original IBM specification, many vendors of clone graphics adapters have implemented backwards monitor compatibility and auto detection. For example, EGA cards produced by Paradise could operate as a MDA, or CGA adapter if a monochrome or CGA monitor was used in place of an EGA monitor. Many CGA cards were also capable of operating as MDA or Hercules card if a monochrome monitor was used.
Single colour screens
Display colours other than white were very popular on monochrome monitors in the 1980s. These colours were more comfortable on the eye. This was particularly an issue at the time due to the lower refresh rates in use at the time causing flicker, plus the use of less comfortable colour schemes than used with most of today's software.
Green screens were the most popular colour, with orange displays also available. 'Paper white' was also in use, which was a warm white.
Modern technology
Analog RGB monitors
Most modern computer displays can show thousands or millions of different colors in the RGB color space by varying red, green, and blue signals in continuously variable intensities.
Digital and analog combination
Many monitors have analog signal relay, but some more recent models (mostly LCD screens) support digital input signals. It is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital. For several years, televisions, composite monitors, and computer displays have been significantly different. However, as TVs have become more versatile, the distinction has blurred.
Configuration and usage
Multi-head
Main article: Multi-monitor
Some users use more than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes. One of the most common spreads the entire desktop over all of the monitors, which thus act as one big desktop. The X Window System refers to this as Xinerama.


Two Apple flat-screen monitors used as dual display
Terminology:
Dualhead - Using two monitors
Triplehead - using three monitors
Display assembly - multi-head configurations actively managed as a single unit
Virtual displays
The X Window System provides configuration mechanisms for using a single hardware monitor for rendering multiple virtual displays, as controlled (for example) with the Unix DISPLAY global variable or with the -display command option.
Additional features
Power saving
More or less all modern monitors contain a power saving mode they will switch to if they receive no video input signal. Modern operating systems can thus power down a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. Typical lifetime cost savings outweight the cost of implementation. This also extends the service life of the monitor.
Some monitors will also switch themselves completely off after a time period on standby.
Some laptops have a dimmed screen mode they can use to extend battery life.] Directional screen
Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security conscious applications.] Touch screen
These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. This does however mean the screen needs frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.
Major manufacturers
Acer
Apple Inc.
BenQ
Dell, Inc.
Hewlett-Packard
Eizo
HannStar Display Corporation
Iiyama Corporation
LaCie
LG Electronics
NEC Display Solutions
Philips
Samsung
Sharp
Sony
ViewSonic
Westinghouse

Random access memory
“RAM" redirects here. For other uses of the word, see Ram.


Example of writable but volatile random access memory: Dynamic RAM modules, primarily used as main memory in Personal computers
Random access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a type of computer data storage. It today takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.[1]
This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory, where the information is lost when power is switched off. However, many other types of memory are RAM as well (i.e. Random Access Memory), including most types of ROM and a kind of flash memory called NOR-Flash.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Overview
2.1 Types of RAM
2.2 Memory hierarchy
2.2.1 Swapping
2.3 Other uses of the term
2.3.1 "RAM disks"
3 Recent developments
4 Memory wall
5 See also
6 Terminology
7 Notes and references
8 External links
History
The first type of random access memory was the magnetic core memory, developed in 1951, and used in all computers up until the development of the static and dynamic RAM integrated circuits in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Prior to the development of the magnetic core memory computers used relays or vacuum tubes to perform memory functions.
Overview
Types of RAM
Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash. Some types have circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. RAM of the read-only type, ROM, instead uses a metal mask to permanently enable/disable selected transistors, instead of storing a charge in them.
As both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, other forms of computer storage, such as disks and magnetic tapes, have been used as "permanent" storage in traditional computers. Many newer products such as PDAs and small music players (up to 160 GB in Jan 2008) do not have hard disks, but often rely on flash memory to maintain data between sessions of use; the same can be said about products such as mobile phones, advanced calculators, synthesizers etc; even certain categories of personal computers have begun replacing magnetic disk with flash drives, such as the OLPC XO-1. There are two basic types of flash memory: the NOR type, which is capable of true random access, and the NAND type, which is not; the former is therefore often used in place of ROM, while the latter is used in most memory cards and solid-state drives, due to a lower price.
Memory hierarchy


1 Module of 128Mb NEC SD-RAM
Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of CPU registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems, and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the random access term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, rank, channel, or interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that rotating storage media or a tape is variable. (Generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom.)
In most modern personal computers, the RAM comes in easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or too small for current purposes. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the computer system.
Swapping
If a computer becomes low on RAM during intensive application cycles, the computer can resort to swapping. In this case, the computer temporarily uses hard drive space as additional memory. Constantly relying on this type of backup memory is called thrashing, which is generally undesirable because it lowers overall system performance. In order to reduce the dependency on swapping, more RAM can be installed.
Other uses of the term
Other physical devices with read/write capability can have "RAM" in their names: for example, DVD-RAM. "Random access" is also the name of an indexing method: hence, disk storage is often called "random access" because the reading head can move relatively quickly from one piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. However the final "M" is crucial: "RAM" (provided there is no additional term as in "DVD-RAM") always refers to a solid-state device.
"RAM disks"
Software can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a RAM disk. Unless the memory used is non-volatile, a RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down. However, volatile memory can retain its data when the computer is shut down if it has a separate power source, usually a battery.
Recent developments
Several new types of non-volatile RAM, which will preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include carbon nanotubes and the magnetic tunnel effect. In summer 2003, a 128 KB magnetic RAM chip manufactured with 0.18 µm technology was introduced. The core technology of MRAM is based on the magnetic tunnel effect. In June 2004, Infineon Technologies unveiled a 16 MB prototype again based on 0.18 µm technology. Nantero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 GB array in 2004. Whether some of these technologies will be able to eventually take a significant market share from either DRAM, SRAM, or flash-memory technology, remains to be seen however.
In 2006, "Solid-state drives" (based on flash memory) with capacities exceeding 150 gigabytes and speeds far exceeding traditional disks have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random access memory and "disks", dramatically reducing the difference in performance
Memory wall
The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries. From 1986 to 2000, CPU speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottleneck in computer performance. [2]
Currently, CPU speed improvements have slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in their Platform 2015 documentation (PDF):
“First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat (more on power consumption below). Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any – gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address.”
The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures which projects a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. The data on Intel Processors clearly shows a slowdown in performance improvements in recent processors. However, Intel's new processors, Core 2 Duo (codenamed Conroe) show a significant improvement over previous Pentium 4 processors; due to a more efficient architecture, performance increased while clock rate actually decreased.

The Behavior of the most respected umpire from caribbean country, in





the test of Indian tour of Australia was Xactly like this.

Wanna More to download

" C "this you will find more to download


The Computer Tricks

Try this......



Just follow the following steps:
1.Select any file or folder.
2.Right click on it,press rename or simply press F2.
3.Press and hold the alt key.While holding the Alt key,type numbers 0160 from the numpad.


Note:Type the numbers 0160 from the numpad,that is,the numbers present on the right side of the keyboard.Dont type the numbers which are present on top of the character keys.

4.Press Enter and the nameless file or folder will be created.Reason:The file or folder that seems nameless is actually named with a single space.But what if you want to create another nameless file or folder in the same directory ?
For this you will have to rename the file with 2 spaces.
Just follow these steps below:

1.Select file,press F2.
2.Hold alt key and type 0160 from the numpad.
3.Release the alt key.
Now without doing anything else,again hold alt key and press 0160.
4.Press enter and you will have second nameless file in the same directory.
5.Repeat step 3 to create as many nameless files or folders in the same directory




This is one of the ultimate tricks.
watch a movie

1. ur operating system should be XP.
2. then connect to the internet.
3. then finally type " telnet towel.blinkenlights.nl " into the RUN menu.